i. Awadh

1722 Saadat Khan appointed Mughal governor; Safdar Jung (his son-in-law): Deputy Governor

Office of diwan was virtually independent

Jagirdari reforms → new elite (Indian Muslims, Afghans, Hindus) loyal to Diwan

Failure to yield greater influence at Mughal Court → Allies with Nadir Shah

ii. Bengal

Mostly independent with some allegiance to Mughals

1717 Murshid Kuli Khan becomes Governor (DIWAN + NIZAM) under Farrukhsiyar → Consolidate Powerful Intermediary Zamindars - 15 responsible for half of revenue 1727 Shuja-ud-din Nawab

1739 Alivardi Khan Nawab → virtual break with Mughals

1756 Siraj-ud-daulah Nawab

1757 Battle of Plassey: Jagat Seths, Zamindars, Raja Janki Ram, Raja Manik Chand, EIC depose Siraj-ud-Daulah

iii. Arcot

1720s Autonomous Carnatic State, Saadutullah Khan (capital Arcot) nominally under Nizam of Hyderabad

Played important role in Anglo-French rivalry

1745-48 First Carnatic War

English attack French ships in Pondicherry → French occupy Madras

English sought help of Nawab of Carnatic, but defeated by French at St Theme

1749-54 Second Carnatic War

French (Dupleix) support succession of Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) & Chanda Sahib (Carnetic)

English (Clive) support their rivals Nasir Jung (Hyderabad) & Anwar-ud-din (Carnatic)

1750 Clive defeats French & Nawabs, kills Chanda Sahib.

1754 Dupleix recalled, peace signed (French got no help from French govt.)

1758-63 Third Carnatic War

1756 Seven Years war in Europe begins

1757 Chandranagore captured by EIC

1760 Battle of Wandiwash → French decimated

1763 Treaty of Paris → French now mere traders without political powers.

iv. Hyderabad

Chin Qulich Khan: oust Sayyid Brothers; Mughal Wazir (1722-24); leaves court to start autonomous Deccan principality. 1723 Defeats Mubariz Khan, the independent Mughal governor

1724 Chin Qulich Khan "Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Khan" lays foundation

1740 Nizam leaves Delhi

Succession crisis between son NASIR JUNG and grandson MUZAFFAR JUNG

1748 Muzaffar Jung dies → restart of old rivalries with Marathas, Mysore, Carnatic and French.

1762-03 Nizam Ali Khan - border issues resolved, political stability

1760 Saadat Jung & Colonel Forde sign friendly treaty

1766 offensive-cum-defensive treaty with EIC → EIC gets Northern Circars for an annual tribute

1780-84 Nizam is neutral in 2^nd Anglo-Mysore War.

1790-92 Nizam allies with English in 3^rd Anglo Mysore War

1798 Subsidiary Alliance between Nizam Ali & Lord Wellesley

1799 Nizam allies with English in 4^th Anglo Mysore War

1853 Dalhousie coerces Nizam to cede Berar

1857 Nizam sides with British in Revolt of 1857

i. Marathas

Only successor with potential for pan-Indian empire.

Bhonsle of Nagpur; Gaikwad of Baroda; Holkar of Indore; Sindia of Gwalior

ii. Sikhs

1675 Guru Teg Bahadur (9^th) executed in Delhi

1699 Guru Gobind Singh (10^th) establishes Khalsa

GGS unsuccessfully tried to take over Anandpur (during Aurangzeb and Bahadur Shah I)

1708 GGS murdered (October 7^th)

Banda Bahadur continues revolt, suppressed by Farrukhsiyar

1716 Banda Bahadur executed

Invasion by Nadir Shah & Abdali benefits Sikhs

12 mils (confederacies) → RANJIT SINGH

iii. Jats

Curaman and Badan Singh founded Jat State of Bharatpur

Suraj Mal consolidates 1756-63; Collapse after him

i. Rajputs

16^th-17^th Century → organized into 20 major clans.

Clan identity, clan rivalries, intensified due to absence of check by imperial authority.

ii. Mysore

Originally viceroyalty under Vijaynagar Empire

Autonomous principality under Wodeyar dynasty CHIKKADEVARAJA WODEYAR

Wodeyar deposed - DEVARAJA and NANARAJA

Second Carnatic War

Anglo-Mysore Wars - Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan - had French training in infantry and artillery

Gov. Wellesley - IV Anglo-Mysore War - Subsidiary Treaty

iii. Travencore

Always independent from Mughal reach

1729 Martanda Verma pinnacle

1766 Mysorean invasions resisted Rama Verma (S/O Martanda)

Lost eminence and power after Rama Verma

1800 Accepts British Resident

i. West

a) Surat 1612

b) Baroda

c) Ahmedabad

d) Baroch

e) Bombay 1668, Gerald Augier, HQ

ii. S-East

a) Mauslipatnam

b) Pulicat

c) Madras 1639, Francis Dey, HQ

iii. East

a) Hariharpur 1633

b) Balasore 1633

c) Hooghli 1651

d) Sutanati 1690

e) Ft. Williams 1698, Charles Eyre, HQ (included Kalikata, Govindpur, Sutanati)

i. Mercantile Phase 1757-1813

Direct plunder using monopoly of trade.

Use Indian revenues to buy Indian products at low rates and export.

ii. Free Trade Capitalist Exploitation 1813-1858

Charter of 1813

India became a source of cheap raw materials

Laying of railways to open interior markets.

iii. Finance-Imperialism 1858 onwards

Export of capital from India

Chains of British controlled banks and export-Import firms

i. Economic Critique of Colonial policies revealing true exploitative nature of British colonialism.

Dadabhai Naoroji - Poverty and Un-British rule in India (1867)

Romesh Chandra Dutt - Economic History of India (1901)

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, GV Joshi, GK Gokhale, RP Dutt, PC Ray, GS Iyer.

iii. Foreign Investment - Guaranteed profits for investors from territorial revenues

Investment to Railways - private entrepreneurs invited, guaranteed 5% return, 99-yr lease etc.

Equipment for project was imported - ancillary industries didn't develop.

Higher posts reserved for British.

i. Pre-Colonial Days

- Several layers of intermediate authorities.

- Breakup of Mughals → number of intermediaries ↑ → Degree of Extraction ↑

- 1790 12 big zamindari houses paid more than 53% of revenue in Bengal.

- Allahabad Treat → Diwani Rights to EIC.

- Lack of knowledge of agrarian system, land relations of India.

- Short Tenure of local officers → disallowed consistent policy → dependent on local amils & their contacts

- Absence of unified policy of revenue administrations

- Rampant corruption.

- Revenue Farming System by Warren Hastings (1772) → collection rights given to highest bidder → revenue varies yearly.

ii. Zamindari (Permanent Settlement) CORNWALLIS (arrived 1784)

- Zamindar and not the sovereign was the proprietor of land

- Zamindars no longer had feudalistic features (collecting duties, deciding civil cases etc.)

- Rate of revenue assessed forever → fixed at absolute maximum

- Fixed government demand → incentive for Zamindar to improve output (DIDN'T HAPPEN)

- Revenue due by sunset of a fixed day. Failure implied auction of Zamindari rights.

- Sub-infeudation, Fragmentation, Rack-rented; Peasants now tenants;

- Regulating Acts 1799 and 1812 gave Zamindars right to evict ryots and seize lands.

iii. Ryotwari ALEXANDER REED (1792), THOMAS MUNRO (1801)

- Increase revenue by bypassing intermediaries making direct contract with ryots.

- Individual proprietary rights to peasants

- Field assessment system visualized but in reality, guesswork.

- Badly administered → problems for cultivators

- Saharanpur Rules of 1855 → demand fixed on discretion of revenue officers → varying rental → no security.

- Heavy tax burden → loan sharks → penury

iv. Mahalwari HOLT MACKENZIE (1822)

- Settlement was to be made by village by village and estate (mahal) by estate.

- Lambardars were intermediaries but unlike Zamindars, they had no perpetual rights.

- Individual cultivation but collective revenue payment.

- Collection by village headman or lambardar.

- Revenue fixed for a limited time period 30-yrs or 20-yrs; Acc. To yielding capacity and crop nature.

- Lambardars abused privileges, cultivators overburdened and rack-rented.

v. Overall Impact of British Land Revenue Policies

- Disruption of village economy and relations of production.

- Rise of new classes (traders, middlemen, moneylenders) → exploitation of ryots.

- Law & Order, Medical Facilities → Population ↑ → Fragmentation of Family-land

- Landlords uninterested in improving agriculture → not much innovation done.

- Moneylenders/Sahukars - interest rates ranging from 12% to 300% → exploitation of ryots.

- Land became commodity → cultivators couldn't find new land to re-settle (unlike before).

i. Famines

- Bombay 1717-18, 1722, 1728, 1747, 1782

- Madras 1728, 1731-34, 1737, 1790-92

- Bengal 1751, 1769-70, 1788

- Hyderabad 1799-1801

- North India 1783-84 (Multan-Murshidabad)

ii. Famine Policies

1866 Orissa Famine Enquiry Comm. Sir George Campbell

Blamed entire Bengal admin not just local officials; Security of tenure, employ people for public work, import food;

1878 Famine Commission General Richard Strachey

Recognized State's duty to offer relief without making people over-dependent; Remit/Suspend Rent; Provide Loans;

1883 Provincial Famine Code

1900 Famine Commision Sir Anthony MacDonnel

Adopt moral strategy - early suspension of revenue/rent, advance distribution; providing work as relief measure;

1901 Irrigation Commission Lord Curzon

1904 Cooperative Societies Act supply credit to avoid extortion by loan sharks

1909 Punjab Land Alienation Act restrict transfer of agricultural land to non-agriculturalists.

Major Individuals - Bengal

1772-33 Rammohun Roy

Radhakanta Deb

Dwarkanath Tagore

1838-84 Keshab Chandra Sen

1838-84 BC Chattopadhyay

1838-14 Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda

Sisir Kumar Ghosh

1824-73 Michael Madhusudan Dutt

Major Individuals - Western India

1812-46 Bal Shastri Jambhekar

1814-82 Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar

1816-47 Bhasker Pandurang Tarkhadkar (1816-47)

1823-82 Gopal Hari Deshmuk Lokahitawadi

1825-73 Vishnu Bhikaji Gokhale

1827-76 Vishnu Shastri Pt

1827-90 Jyotiba Phule

1837-25 RG Bhandarkar

1838-93 Narayan Mahadev

1842-01 MG Ranade

Major Institutions

Society for Translating European Sciences - Calcutta, 1825

Society for Acquisition of General Knowledge - 1838-14

Indian Association for Cultivation of Science - Mahendra Sircar, 1876

Benaras Debating Club - 1861

Aligarh Scientific Society - Sayyid Ahmed Khan, 1864

Society for Acquisition of General Knoledge - HV Derozio

Elphinstone Institution - Bombay, 1827

Beliefs and Background

Banerjee Family name, heriditary title of Roy-Rayan conferred by Nawab of Bengal

Bengali (mother tongue), Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English; Working Knowledge - Latin, Greek, Hebrew

1797 Joins company's service in revenue department

1805 Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin (A gift to Unitarians): inspired from Islam, against idolatry and superstition

1822 Miat-ul-Akhbar (Weekly Journal)

1815 Atmiya Sabha (defunct 1819) - propagate monotheistic docrine of Hindu Scriptures

1820 Precepts of Jesus

1825 Vedanta College - scientific study of eastern classics, hindu monotheistic doctrines, Sanskrit

1826 Brahmo Sabha

Viewed British rule as beneficial

Protested against Jury Act (1827), Press Act (1828)

Weekly journal - Sambad Kaumadi - suggested improvements in British administration

Religion → separate essentials from non-essentials; propagate rationally sound ethico-religious thought.

Unity of God, Love of Mankind

Brahmo Samaj

Started as Brahmo Sabha (1826), Brahmo Samaj → 20 August 1828No sacrifice was permitted, no object of worship reviled.

Debendranath Tagore assumed charge as Acharya → 'Brahmopasna'

Tattva Bodhini Sabha, Tattva Bodhini Patrika to propagate message-box

Keshab Chandra Sen 1857 → reformist ideas, Sangat Sabha

DN Tagore & KC Sen Split → Adi Brahmo Samaj (orthodox), Brahmo Samaj of India (reformist)

Brahmo marriages recognized by Native Marriage Act II, 1872

Beliefs and Background

Born MUL SHANKAR, Brahmin, Kathiawar Gujarat

Renounced home at 21, wandered for 15 years

Master of Sanskrit language and grammar, Hindu philosophy, religious literature

First to publish religious commentaries on Vedas in hindi

Intellectual honesty, forceful speaker, doughty debator.

Aimed to reclaim and reconvert those who had been lost to Hindu fold, revive pride

1877 Satyartha Prakash, Benaras - sum and substance of his teaching (Arya Samajists' Bible)

Monotheism, with Vedas as his utterance.

Accepted doctrine of Karma, transmigration of soul, sanctity of cow.

Good Government is no substitute for self-government

Arya Samaj

To counteract proselytizing activities of Muslims & Christians

To launch programme of social reformist

Doesn't believe in caste based on birth, but in one resting on work

Vedas are infallible, eternal and divine - Back to the Vedas

Social work - famine relief, funding orphanages, widow homes, upliftment of women

Protection of cow; Shuddhi (reconversion) → Muslim alienation

Recognized value of English - Dayanand Anglo Vedic Schools & Colleges

Had no political association (Lajpat Rai, Bhai Permananda were political activists)

Practical programme - superiority of practice over belief and devotion.

Unlike other reformist movements, Arya Samaj never cut itself from mainstream Hindu thought.

Ramakrishna

Ramakrishna, born Hooghly 1836, priest of Kali at age 20.

Devotion to God (Kali) was supreme goal of the mind

Formless god - for man to realize Him in any manner he wanted

Universal synthesis of all religions

Vivekananda

Born Narendra Nath Dutta, Kayastha, Calcutta, 1863

Educated in mission school and college, distinguished in Philosophy

Member of Brahmo Samaj, but came under Ramakrishna 1882

All-India pilgrimage → witness decadent state of Hindu society

Representative of Hinduism to Parliament of Religions, Chicago, 1893

Salvation comes not through life of recluse but by serving God in man.

Four rocks of Nationalism: awaken masses, develop physical moral strength, unity on common spiritual ideas, consciousness and pride in ancient glory

Ramakrishna Mission

Established 1887, formally registered 1909

Not religious order but Social Service Mission

Based on: Worship God in Men; Universal Unity of all religions

Beliefs and Background

Religion - unity of god;

3-fold: hierarchy of angels, human spirits & sub-human intelligence, unviersal brotherhood.

Polytheism is compatible with modernization → educated Indians flocked to meetings.

Theosophical Society

1875 Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Henry Olcott (NY)

1882, HQ at Bombay, 100 brances by 1884

Annie Besant, arrived 1893, President 1907

Restoring among Indians a faith in Hinduism, pride in heritage, revivalism

1898 Establish Central Hindu College Benaras (nucleus for BHU)

Beliefs and Background

Father of Renaissance in Western India

Judge of Bombay High Court

Economist, Politician, Historian, Social Reformer

Focus on social and religious reform relying upon Legislation

Reformation from within (as opposed to Revivalism)

Prarthna Samaj

Maharashtra 1867, inspired by Keshabchandra Sen

Like Brahmo Samaj, aimed at socio-religious reforms

Pointed out evil customs and their incompatibiluity to practices observed in earlier times

Other notable members: Dhondo Keshav Karve, Vishnu Shastri

Widows Home Association to provide education to widows

i. Deva Samaj - Shiv Narain Agnihotri - Lahore, 1887

Teachings compiled in book DEVA SHASTRA

Emphasis on Supreme Being, eternity of soule, Supremacy of Guru, Good Action

Prescribed ideal social conduct and moral ethics (bribe, gamble, intoxicants, meat, violence)

ii. Bharat Dharma Mahamandala - Pt. Din Dayal Sharma - Punjab, 1890

Orthodox educated Hindus rising in defence against reformists

1895 Sanatan Dharma Sabha - Haridwar

1802 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, HQ Varanasi

iii. Madras Hindu Association, 1892

Madras Hindu Social Reforms Association, Viresalingam Pamtulu - plight of widows

Social Purity Movement, RV Ratnam Naidu - temperance and combating Devadasi system

iv. Dharma Sabha - Radhakant Deb - 1830

Orthodox society, defenders of status-quo

Fought reformers and radicals

Even opposed Abolition of Sati

Promoted western education (even among girls)

v. Lokahitawadi - Gopal Hari Deshmukh

He worked as Judge, member of Gov. Gen's Council (1830)

Social reformer, rational thionker

Promoted self-reliance, seeking western outlook to solve nation's problems

Supported women causes

Deplored ignorance, old social values, over dominance of religion, selfishness of upper castes

vi. Radhaswami Movement - Tulsi Ram Swamiji Maharaj - Agra, 1861

Radhaswamis believe in one Supreme

All religions are true

Recognizes no temples, shrines or sacred places.

Duties: Works of faith and charity, spirit of service and prayer

vii. Seva Sadan - Behramji Malabari - 1885

Against child marriages and enforced widowhood

Specialized in care of socially discarded, exploited women, all castes

Provide educational, welfare and medicinal services

viii. Servants of India Society - Gopal Krishna Gokhale - 1915

To build a dedicated group of people for social service and reform

Famine relief, union organization, uplifting tribals & depressed classes

ix. Indian National Social Conference - MG Ranade, Raghunath Rao - Madras, 1887

Annual Conference, focussed on attention on matters relating to social reforms

Pledge Movement to inspire people to take oaths to prohibit child marriage

Advocated inter-caste marriages, opposed kulinism and polygamy

x. Social Service League - Narayan Malhar Joshi - 1911

To collect and study social facts and discuss social problems with a view of forming public opinion

Opened number of day and night schools, libraries, dispensaries, Boys' clubs etc.

xi. Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha - 1851

Religious Reform Organization of Parsis in India

Dadabhai Naoroji, JB Wacha, SS Bengali, Naoroji Furdonji

For regeneration of social condition of Parsis and restoration of Zorastrian religion to its pristine purity

Age of marriage was increased and women achieved emancipation

xii. Mahima Movement - Mahima Goswami - Orissa

Stressed on disciplined habits to control body and mind

Didn't recognize caste, creed, color, etc.

xiii. Prof. DR Karve

1896 Widow Home, Poona

Founded several educational institutions

India's first Women's University in Bombay

Beliefs and Background

Born Delhi, 1817, family that migrated to India in 17th century and held positions at Mughal Court

Received no formal education but man of letters - Urdu journal founded and edited by his brother

1858 Pamphlet on Causes of Indian Mutiny

Upliftment and rejuvenation of his community

Reconcile and promote understanding b/w English and Muslim

Disseminate education among his community to release it from clutches of obscurantism

1863 Indian Scientific Society

1877 Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh (Oxbridge pattern)

1886 Muhammadan Educational Congress (renamed ME Conference in 1890)

Favored bothe technical education for community and higher education for women

1888 Indian Patriotic Association (oppose INC as its activities were seditious)

Open competition for jobs would be detrimental to Muslim interests

Aligarh Movement

Essentially a cultural movement with objective of regeneration of liberal values

Mordernization of Muslim community, popularization of education, rationalization of religious tenets

Stress was laid on learning western science and literation besides the traditional study of Islam

Movement eschewed active politics to ensure British support → supported all legislations

Enlarge the role of muslims in religious, economic and political life of the country

Emphasized historical superiority of Muslims in India

Opposed Badruddin Tayyabji's election as INC President in 1887

British patronage preferred over alliance with Hindus

i. Faridi Movement - Haji Shariat-Allah - East Bengal

Affirmed strongly unity of God

Aimed at eradication of social innovations (mostly borrowed from Hinduism)

Suspended Friday and Id prayers (as India under British rule was Daral-Harab)

Remained religious and social rather than political movement

Became revolutionary under son Dudu Miyan (1840 onwards)

Parallel government - courts, para-military.

ii. Titu Mir's Movement - Mir Nithar Ali - West Bengal

A disciple of Sayyad Ahmad Raebarelwi - founder of Wahabi movement

Organized Muslim peasants against Hindu landlords, British planters

iii. Ahamadiya Movement - Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan - 1889

Defender of Islam against polemics of Arya Samaj and Missionaries

Principles of universal religion of humanity

Liberalism, theosophy, relgio-reform movements

Opposed Jihad, spread western liberal education

iv. Deoband Movement - Mhd Qasim Nahautavi & Rashid Ahmad Gangohi

Deoband School of Islamic Theology was a poor man's school

Rashid Gangohi advised Muslims to cooperate with Congress

Advocated concept of nationality (hence opposed by Aligarh movement)

Supporter - Shibli Numani, founded NADWATAL ULAMA and DARUL ULUM, Lucknow, 1894-96

Muslims are citizens of India and owed loyalty to their motherland

i. Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodak Samaj (1873)

Mali family; Associated with Christian Missionaries

1854 opened school for untouchables, started private orphanages to help widows

Violent dislike of Brahmin priesthood

1872 Ghulamgiri book

1873 Satya Sadhan Samaj

ii. Narayan Guru and Avarippuram Movement (Kerala, 1888)

Opposed to Brahmin or priestly domination

Even low-caste person can consecrate an image and act as a priest

1888 installed idol of Shiva at Aravippuram

Saint, seer philosopher, poet, social reformer for millions of people

Education and organization → freedom and strength

iii. EVR Periyar and Self-Respect Movement (Tamil Nadu, 1925)

Radical movement opposing Brahmin domination

Advocated simple marriages without priests and rituals, forcible temple entry, burning Manusmriti

British encouragement → Dravidian or Tamil separatism

i. Faqir Uprising - Bengal 1776-77

Wandering Muslim religious mendicants

Fall of Bengal → MAJNUM SHAH collected levy

Defiance of British Authority

Led by Chirag Ali Shah

Attacked factories, seized goods, cash, arms etc.

Eventually solved as a law & order issue.

ii. Sanyasi Uprising - Bengal, 1770-1820

Restrictions imposed on pilgrims visiting holy places.

Raided factories, collected contributions from towns.

Conflict between bands of Sanyasis and British forces.

iii. Moplah Rebellion - Malabar, 1835-1921

Arab traders + Nayar/Tayar women => Moplah

JENMI: high-caste Hindus with birthright to land

Muslim Moplahs: Initially Peasants

a. Traditionally: Land to Namboodari Brahmin, Nayar Chiefs

b. Haider Ali, Tipu: Namboodari & Nayar fled → Vaccum filled by Moplah

c. Malabar's Accession 1792: Namboodari, Nayar return

d. Law sides with JENMIS → MOPLAH Revolt

1835-54 - 22 uprisings, religious overtones, martyrdom

i. Velu Thampi - Travencore, 1808-09

Dewan of Travancore (Kerala) v/s British

Removal from Dewanship + Subsidiary Alliance Terms => Revolt

Thampi died in woods, but later publicly hanged.

ii. Polygar Rebellions - Kurnool, 1799-1805

Similar to Rajputs - got land in exchange for military service.

Later claimed semi-sovereignty, taxes => conflict with British

1799 SEP First Polygar War: Tirunelveli District; KATTABOMMA NAYAK;

1800-01 Second Polygar War: South Indian Rebellion => CARNATIC TREATY (July 31, 1801)

MARUDU PANDIAN (Sivaganga); GOPALA NAYAK (Dundigal); KERALA VARMA (Malabar); KRISHNAPPA NAYAK (Mysore)

Carnatic Treaty: British assumed direct control, Polygari ends, Zamidari starts.

i. Ramosi Uprising - Satara, Pune MH - 1822, 1825-26

Served in lower ranks of Maratha Army & Police

1822 Revolted in Satara, CHITTUR SINGH: Plundered, attacked forts

1825-26 Under UMAJI (due to acute famine and scarcity in Pune)

British pacified by condoning crimes, offering grants, recruiting in Hill Police

ii. Sawantwadi Revolt - Ratnagiri MH - 1844

PHOND SAVANT Maratha Sardar, Anna Sahib, captured forts

Escaped to Goa, ultimately crushed by Martial Law.

i. Categories - Non-Frontier & Frontier

Non Frontier: 89% population; KHOND; SAVARA; SANTHAL; MUNDA; ORAON; KOYA; KOL; GOND; BHIL

Frontier: 7-NE States;

ii. Tribal System

Shifting Agriculture;

Hunting/Fishing

Forest Produce

Political Autonomy

Own System of Justice

iii. Causes of Revolts

Imposition of Land Revenue Settlement

Christian Missionaries

Increased demands for wood in 19th Century

Forest Department 1864, Government Forests Act 1865; Indian Forests Act 1878

Influx of non-tribals

i. Phase 1: 1795-1860 - Santhal and Khond

Coincided with rise, expansion and establishment of British Empire

SANTHAL 1854-56: Bihar, Orissa

Forced serfdom; DIKU (outsiders) money lenders;

1854 BIR SINGH of Sasan in Lachimpur

1855 June, SIDDHU & KHANU;

Cut off communications, attacked money lenders, zamindars, planters, etc.

Final → Capture, brutal suppression.

KHOND 1837-56: TN-Bengal + CP

CHAKRA BISOI; Tribals of Ghumsar, China-ki-Medi, Kalahandi, Patna

Cause: abolition of human sacrifice, new taxes, influx of Zamindars & Sahukars

ii. Phase 2: 1860-1920 - Munda and Koya

Coincided with intensive phase of colonialism, merchant capital penetrating to Tribal Areas

MUNDA 1789-32: 7-rebellions

Against landlords, dikus, British; Some turned to Evangelical Lutheran Missionaries Against erosion of Khuntkatti System (joint tenures) Ban on beth begari Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act 1908: recognized Joint Farming Rights, banned Forced Labour (Beth Begari)

KOYA 1879-80: Eastern Godavari tracts of Andhra Pradesh

TOMMA SORA Rampa country of CHODAVARAM (Koya & Konda Sara chiefs) Against mansabdar (backed by British) Forest Rights, Money Lenders, Excise Regulations, Grazing Tax, Police Exactions.

iii. Phase 3: 1920-1947 - Rampa, Chenchu Tribe

RAMPA North of Godavari; SITARAM RAJU

1916 Revolt; Guerrilla warfare 1922-24 Against money lenders and forest-laws

CHENCHU Nallamalai Hills (S Andhra)

Forest Satyagraha, Non-Cooperations VENKATTAPPAYA, Gandhi visit Cuddapah

i. Khasi: 1829-33; TIRUT SINGH

Burmese War → British gain Brahmaputra Valley

Conscription of laborers for road construction => Revolt under TIRUT SINGH

GAROS joined in.

ii. Singhphos: 1830-55;

1830 (early) First rebellion, suppressed in 3 months

1839 second rebellion; killed British Political agent

1843 NIRANG PHIDU attacked British garrison

1849 KHASMA SINGHPO attacks British villages, captured 1855

iii. Naga (Rani Gaidinliu)

i. Difference from earlier uprisings

escalated to unprecedented degree, wider participation

ii. Areas Affected

Bengal, Awadh, North, Central & Western India

iii. Areas un-affected

Punjab, Bengal, Central Provinces, Coasts, South India

i. Social and Religious Causes

Sati Abolition (1829)

Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (1856)

Religious Disabilities Act (1856) Christian converts can inherit Hindu property

ii. Economic Causes

British Rule → Breakdown of village self-sufficiency

Commercialization of agriculture, de-industrialization

iii. Military Grievances

Most soldiers caste Hindus, their customs tolerated initially.

Modernization → saffron, beards, turbans, etc.

1856 General Services Enlistment Act (Canning) Serve abroad if needed

Discrimination (racial) promotion, pay etc.

iv. Political Causes

1856 Annexation of Awadh (3/4th of sepoys from Awadh)

Doctrine of Lapse

Annex: SATARA (1848), NAGPUR SAMBHALPUR BAGHAT (1850), UDAIPUR (1852), JHANSI (1853)

v. Agrarian Causes

1856 Summary Settlement (high rate revenue DIRECT from tiller, no MIDDLEMEN)

Institution of Private Property Rights in Land

vi. Administrative Causes

BARRACKPORE, March 29, 1857

Mangal Pandey

General Hearsay orders ISHWARIA PANDEY to arrest Pandey => Mutiny

Pandey executed, regiment disbanded.

MEERUT, May, 11, 1857

Band of sepoys march from Meerut to Red Fort, appeal Bahadur Shah II

Emperor of Hindustan

CAWNPORE MASSACRE

Sepoys of 2nd Cavalry, 1st Native Infantry

June 6: Rebels under Nana Sahib attack British

British promised safe passage by Nana Sahib on June 27

Captives attacked in boats while on river.

News of approaching British troops → hacked all 120 captives (incl. women & children)

Delhi, captured September 20 1857

Bahadur Shah II surrenders

Exiled to Rangoon (with Begum Zinnat Mahal and sons)

3 of his sons shot dead Septeber 2nd at Khooni Darwaza

Siege of Delhi

Awadh (Lucknow), captured March 1858

Begum Hazrat Mahal escapes to Nepal

Maulvi Ahmadullah killed June 1858

Jhansi ended June 17, 1858

May-June 1858: Lakshimibai captures Gwalior Fort

June 17 1858: Rani dies in battle of Gwalior

i. Background

Previously: Religious Zeal, Caste solidarity etc. were motivating factors

Now more secular approach

New Western educated groups that used modern means for mobilization & dissemination of ideas.

Influence Westminster through petitions

ii. Bengal

BHADRALOK: upper class, nucleus of intelligentsia

Young Bengal,

Derozians

Society for Acquisition of General Knowledge

1851 British Indian Association - dominated by Zamindars, defend landed interests

The Indian League → Indian Association (SURENDRANATH BANNERJEE)

1838 Brahmo Samaj - Raja Rammohan Roy

1875 Theosophical Society - Madame Blavatsky

iii. Bombay

Shaped by its specific socio-economic conditions - trade, commerce, industry, cosmopolitan

Religious Reform Association - NAOROJI - Zoroastrian rel

1867 Prarthana Samaj - RANADE - firmly rooted in Hinduism

Bombay Presidency Association - P MEHTA, B TYABJI, K TELANG, NAOROJI, RANADE - Municipality

Poona: Chitpavani Brahmins

1870 Poona Sarvajanik Sabha - represent Indians, Vernacular Press Act, Bombay Forest Regulations, License Tax, Ilbert Bill etc.

iv. Madras

1862 Madras Native Association

1884 Madras Mahajan Sabha

Saligram Idol Case & SN Bannerjee Contempt of Court

i. War in Afghanistan

Imperialist in nature.

Used Indian revenue.

ii. 1877 Delhi Durbar

Proclamation of Assumption of Imperial title by the Queen

Coincided with Famine.

Extravagant

iii. 1878 Arms Act

Imposed restriction on arms by Indians.

iv. 1878 Vernacular Press Act

Imposing restrictions on regional language newspapers.

v. 1878 ICS Age Reduction

Reduction from 21 to 19

vi. 1879 Duty on Import

5% Import duty on manufactured British goods abolished

vii. Ilbert Bill Controversy

i. Main Leaders

BENGAL: WC Bonnerji; Ananda Mohan Bose; Lal Mohan Ghose; AC Mazumdar; Rash Bihari Ghose; SN Bannerjee; RC Dutt

BOMBAY: DB Naoroji; MG Ranade; GK Gokhale; PS Mehta; Telang; BD Tyabji

MADRAS: RR Naidu; S Iyer; Anand Charlu

ENGLAND: AO Hume, Wedderburn, Henery Cotton

ii. Ideology

Believed in justness of British rule

Professed complete loyalty to British

iii. Methods

Peaceful, Bloodless, Constitutional measures.

Press → Create Awareness

Sessions → Platform to pass resolutions, discuss/protest laws

iv. Demands

Educate masses, spread awareness about rights, true conditions of India.

Create reservoir of national political leadership.

Self-Rule under British like Dominion status of Australia, Canada

Full control over Finances & Legislation (No taxation without representation)

Reduce expenditure on Army

Development of modern capitalist industries in India

Abolition of Salt Tax

Prefer Indian capital over large scale import of capital in railways

End of economic drain

Indianization of ICS

Separation of Judiciary and executive

Extension of trial by jury

Repeal Arms Act of 1878

Increase spending on Education

Higher ranking jobs of Indians in army

Freedom of press and speech-rate

Reduction in Home Charges

v. Limitations

Exclusion of non-elites

Not yet anti-British government

Geared towards rectifying un-Britishness of British Rule in India

Hindu Majority (90% of delegates till 1909)

Dufferin's Analysis

Congress demands - eminently unconstitutional;

Congress - Seditious Body representing Microscopic Minority

i. Background

MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE: Divide et Impera

SIR SAYYED

SIR WILLLIAM HUNTER: Indian Musulmans (1871)

Muslims if contented and satisfied become greatest bulwark of British power.

ii. British Ferment Muslim Communalism

Patronize Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh

1886 Mohammedan Educational Congress

iii. Foundation of Muslim League

1903 (END) Curzon announces plan to partition Bengal

1903 Congress adopts resolution against proposal

1904 Congress adopts resolution against proposal

1905 August 7: Final partition scheme announced

1905 September: Congress launches Swadeshi Movement

1905 November: GILBERT MINTO assumes office → works to appease Moderates → Muslim Communal leaders come in action.

1906 Resolution passed for Self-Government (insisted by TILAK)

1906 October 1: SIMLA Deputation of 35 Muslims led by Aga Khan Meets Lord Minto

1906 November 9: NAWAB SALIMULLAH issues circular for All-India Muslim Conference

1906 December 3: Muslim League established

Muslim League Objectives

promote among Indian Muslims feelings of loyalty towards British govt.

protect political and other rights of Indian Muslims

Promote friendly feelings between Muslims and rest (without prejudice to above objectives)

i. 1853 Charter Act

Board of Control Authorized to make rules and regulations wrt appointments.

ICS open through competitive exam.

Extension of Executive Council like petty parliament

Six additional salaried officials

Couldn't materialize due to Revolt of 1857.

ii. 1861 Councils Act

Establishment of Legislatures in Presidencies

Extension of Viceroy's Council

Indians could be nominated to Supreme Legislative Council

Portfolio System (6 ordinary members)

Viceroy's Veto

Council limited to legislation, excluded from execution.

iii. 1892 Indian Councils Act

Enlarged Legislative Council, extended their function

Imperial Council: 10-16 additional members (upto 6 non-official)

Madras & Bombay: 8-20 additional members

Bengal & NWFP: 20 & 15 members respectively

Members can discuss budget and offer suggestions

No elections introduced for Non-Officals

Indirect Election

Indian Legislators: GOKHAL, LM GHOSH, WC BANERJI, SN BANERJI, PS MEHTA

iv. Limitations of Legislative System

Legislative Councils had no control over admin, finance, foreign affairs

Size was too small for a country as populated as India

Official Members followed Governor General's instruction

Non-Official members too few and hand-picked.

i. Aim: Swadeshi-cum-boycott

55% fall in cigarettes, 68% in boots, 22% in cotton goods

Indigenous industries were to be promoted (shortage of capital)

Develop national Education

Bengal National College (AUROBINDO GHOSH)

1906 National Council of Education

Bengal Technical School

ii. Phase 1: 1903-05

Dominated by moderates and their methods (signatures, petitions, speeches, etc.)

Aimed at putting logical critique of partition

SN Bannerjee, KK Mitra, Prithwishchandra Ray

iii. Phase 2: 1905-06

Constructive Swadeshi - self-help through Swadeshi (ATMASHAKTI acc. to Tagore)

Revival of pride in everything indigenous

Non-political constructive programs

iv. Phase 3: 1906-08

Swaraj became the demand

Revivalism, Hindu inspiration, organization of Samitis

Aurobindo Ghosh, BC Pal

v. Significance

Beginning of organized movements in India

Rise in political consciousness of people

Growth in Muslim Separatism

Rise of Neo-nationalists & revolutionary terrorists

i. Early Nationalists had exposed true nature of British Rule

1898 Ranade - Essays in Indian Economics

1901 Naoroji - Indian Poverty and un-British Rule in India

1901 RC Dutt - Economic History of India

ii. Revivalism

Inspiration from Indian spiritual heritage, revival glories of Ancient India

Bankim, Vivekananda, Dayananda

iii. Dissatisfaction with achievements of Moderates

First 15-20 years of Congress

3Ps - Petition Prayer Protest

iv. Economic Miseries

Famine 1896-97, 1899-00

Bubonic Plague in Maharashtra

v. External Influences

British racism to Indians in other colonies like SA

Nationalist movements in Egypt, Turkey, Russia

1896 Abyssinia defeats Italy

1905 Japan defeats Russia

vi. Curzon's 7-yr Rule

Bengal Partition

i. VASUDEO BALWANT PHADKE

Influenced by Ranade on SWADESHI TRADE

1876 Grave Famine in Poona

Resigns from Finance Commissariat at Poona, tours Maharashtra

RAMOSHIS - collect arms and ammo

Plunders moneylenders, creates terror.

1878 Arrested, life imprisonment.

ii. VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR

1900 Mitra Mela

1904 ABHINAV BHARAT (renamed Friends Club)

Blessed by Tilak → bonfire of English clothes and goods.

Shivaji Scholarship (SK VERMA) → Studies Law in England

1906 authors Joseph Mazzini - Biography and Politics

Brother Ganesh arrested for seditious poems, spreading hatred for British govt.

Avenged by murdering Jackson and Curzon Willie (ML Dhingra)

KOOKA MOVEMENT

GURU RAM SINGH - refused to serve British after fall of native Punjab rule

New Sect - NAMDHARI Sikhs or KOOKAS

Political Revolutionary Organization

Encouraged Swadeshi, Panchayats.

Setup Parallel Admin

- Abstain: Meat, wine, teft, lies, usury

- No Female Infanticide, Yes: Widow Remarriage

- Pray, Protect Cow, Perform Yajna

- Boycott British jobs, dress, courts, postal service.

1872 Namdhari Revolt - seized Fort of Malodh, Ludhiana → suppressed brutally

1878 Kookas apprehended, Guru Ram Singh deported to Burma.

i. CHAPEKAR BROTHERS

1894 Chapekar brothers form society for protection of Hinduism.

1897 (Jun 22) Diamond Jubilee Day of Queen Victoria

POONA: RAND takes control; Plague → Quarantine → Suffering

RAND and his associate shot dead by Damodar Chapekar

ii. SHRI SHYAMJI KRISHNA VERMA

Sanskrit Scholar, supporter of Hindu Civilization

Persecuted for Rand Murder → Settles, prospers in England

INDIA HOUSE proves brains behind Savarkar, ML Dhingra, Sardar Singh Rana

1905 Journal SOCIOLOGIST, articles against British → moves to Paris

Handed India House to Savarkar

i. Background

1905 Lord Minto Succeds Lord Curzon, John Morley becomes Sec-State

Growing discontent, economic distress, famines etc. in India

Racial Discrimination, Curzon's Policies, Act of 1892

Positive changes in governance were needed.

ii. Main Features

Non-officials in Imperial (100+) and Provincial Legislative Councils increased

Official Majority compulsory only for Centre

Legislature can question and debate the budget but couldn't vote.

Can introduce legislative proposals but can't enact laws

Muslim Appeasement - Separate Electorates & Plural Voting

iii. Limitations

Non official member had no real powers.

Indirect election (v/s direct) for non-official members

Separate electorates

i. Muslim discontentment wrt British

Treatment of Turkey → 1913 Muslim League Lucknow Session

Annulment of Partition of Bengal

ii. Common Agreed Program

1/3 Central Legislators be Muslim

Separate electorates accepted

Communal veto in legislation

Dominion status for India

i. Background

Rising Nationalism, Home Rule Leagues, WW-I, Revolutionary Activities

Indians to be given avenues for participating in governance of their country

August Declaration - historic pronouncement by Montague - Magna Carta of India (Moderates)

ii. Main Provisions

Provincial Dyarchy - Reserved & Transferred Departments

Reserved: Law & Order, Police, Revenue

Transferred: Education, Health, Public Works

Governor presided both wings of Executive

Indians in GG Exec Council increased to 2

Bicameral Centre - Elected & Nominated members

Lower House 100 elected 44 nominated

Upper House 033 elected 27 nominated

Central Executive responsible to British Parliament (not Central Legislature)

iii. Limitations

Control of Governor General intact - Veto & Ordinances

Fell far short of demands of nationalists

i. 1917 Champaran Satyagraha, Bihar

Rich Zamindars; Forced Indigo; TINTHAKIA

RAJ KUMAR SHUKLA, Peasant Leader, Lucknow Session, invites Gandhi

Institute Open Inquiry → Champaran Agricultural Act 1918 → Tinthakia Abolished

First time Congress leader went to heart of problem & interacted with masses.

ii. 1917-18 Kheda Satyagraha, Gujarat

Rich Kanbi-Patidar peasants called upon Gandhi for remission of Revenue

1917-18: Poor harvest, Prices (kerosene, ironware, cloth, salt) ↑ → Revenue paying capacity ↓

1918 (Mar 22) Gandhi lends support after hesitation

Patchy Satyagraha, 70 (of 559) villages affected

VALLABHBHAI PATEL and MAHADEV DESAI earned support base

FAILED (no inquiry, change) but VALIDATED Satyagraha's possibility

iii. 1918 Ahmadabad Mill Workers' Strike

Directed against Mill Owners (not Government)

Gandhi intervened on behalf of urban mill workers.

First round of talks failed.

Demands met once Gandhi threatened to fast indefinitely.

FIRST TIME FASTING EMPLOYED IN SATYAGRAHA

i. Sedition Committee or Rowlatt Committee

Look into nature and extent of revolutionary activities.

Suggest measures and legislation to curb.

Two bills - One adopted.

Special courts, 2-yr Preventive Detention → Permanent war-time restrictions on civil rights

ii. Rowlatt Satyagraha

Phase 1: court arrest by public sale of prohibited (seditious) works.

Phase 2: All-India Hartal, April 6, 1919 (SUNDAY)

Non violence had short life, mob violence erupts in Bombay, Ahmadabad

SWAMI SHRADHDHANAND (Arya Samaj) proposes "no-revenue"

iii. Estimation of Satyagraha

Pre: Use of 3 networks: Satyagraha Sabha, Home Rule Leagues, Pan-Islamists Groups

Toured many parts of India, connected with local leaders.

SATYAGRAHA 0.1 - Hartal (post employer approval), "no-revenue" not followed

Gandhi realized nation needs awakening before full-fledged Satyagraha

Controlled yet concrete action, couple of steps beyond mere petitioning.

Though FAILURE, Breathed new life in growing national consciousness.

i. Background

Ghadr Party influences → growing intensive politicization

Wartime repressions, forced recruitments, inflation.

Hindu: Arya Samajist, Gokul Chand Narang, Mukund Lal Puri

Muslim: Zafar Ali Khan, Iqbal

ii. Details

1919 (Apr 09) Two local leaders arrested → Peaceful demonstrations

Apr 11 Attacks on British symbols (banks, PO, rail etc.) → Martial Law Apr 11

Apr 13 Unaware of ban on public meetings, Jallianwala Bagh Meeting → 379 dead (official);

iii. Consequences

RN Tagore surrenders knighthood; Sir Sankaran Nair resigns from Viceroy's exec council

Paves way for Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

1940 (Mar 13) Udham Singh shoots Michael O'Dwyer

1920 (Mar) 3-Demands MHD. ALI to diplomats in Paris

Khalifa to control Muslim sacred places

Sufficient territory to allow defense of Islam

Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) → Muslim Sovereignty

i. Background

Period of labor unrest → 125 new trade unions

1920 All India Trade Union Congress, Bombay

1920 (Sep) Calcutta Special Session → Khilafat & Jalliawala

ii. 1920 Nagpur Session

Goal: Swaraj self-government within/without Empire (v/s self-government within Empire)

Means: All peaceful and legitimate means (v/s Constitutional means)

Program: Swadeshi, Untouchability, Hindu-Muslim Unity

iii. Program & Progress

Gandhi & Ali Bros toured the country; "NO-VOTE CAMPAIGN"

a. Surrender titles, offices, nominated seats, etc.

b. Boycott Government durbans, functions, etc.

c. Gradual withdrawl of children from state education

d. Gradual boycott of Legal system by lawyers & litigants

e. Refuse serving in Mesopotamia (military, clerical, labor)

f. Withdraw candidature to councils

g. Boycott foreign goods

iv. Course

Middle class, student, proffesional participation.

Tilak Swaraj Fund of Rs 1 cr (1 cr members) → 20 lac charkhas

1921 (Nov 17) Prince of Wales visit → Nation-wide hartal

1922 Bardoli, GJ: No-tax campaign BUT Chauri Chaura

v. Estimation of Movement

Failures:

a. Khilafat, Punjab, Swaraj: NO DEMANDS MET

b. Communal Violence, Moplah Rebellion (1921)

c. Riots: Multan (1922, 1923); Delhi (1924); NWFP (1924)

d. SWAMI SHRADHDHANAND: Shudhdhi Campaign

Plus:

a. Spread, Gandhi's Appeal, Participation

b. Congress can now organize people at all-India level

c. Mass participation → Elitist image shattered.

NAREN BHATTACHARKI

1919 Meets Mikhail Borodin, Mexico

1920 Attends 2nd Comintern

Yugantar Revolutionary

Had dialog with Lenin

Minor Organizations

Labor Swaraj Party, Bengal

Congress Labor Party, Bombay

Kirti Kisan Party, Punjab

Labor Kisan Party of Hindustan, Madras

1934 Congress Socialist Party - NARENDRA DEV

to mould Congress Leftwards; Bose, Nehru outside support.

Rift in Congress along left/right lines

Left: GB Pant, PD Tandon, Sri Prakash

Right: Patel

i. Background

Premature withdrawal of Non-Cooperation

Civil Disobedience Committee

Pro-Changers: CR Das, Vithalbhai Patel, Ajmal Khan, ML Nehru (participate in elections)

No-Changers: Ansari, Rajagopalachari, Iyengar, Rajendra Prasad, Patel (continue rural work)

1922 Gaya Session → Pro-changers defeated → Congress-Khilafat-Swarajya Party

ii. Achievements and Activities

Election: 42/101 (Central); Majority (CP); Larges (Bengal)

Aim: wrecking Councils from within

Competitor: Liberal Federation - unpatriotic, British leaning

1926: Walk out on issue of all-white Simon Council

i. British Policy - Post Revolt

Queen's Proclamation: No desire to extend territorial possessions

Perpetuity of state guaranteed as "breakwaters to storm"

Doctrine of Paramountcy (Right to interfere IF NEED BE)

Subordinate Isolation (1813-58) Subsidiary Alliance, Protectorate (Chaotic, Indefinite Policies)

Subordinate Union (1858-35) Principle of Intervention

Equal Federation (1935-47) Federation joined by rulers at will.

ii. Chamber of Princes of NRIPENDRA MANDAL

1916 Lord Hardinge envisioned permanent consultative body.

1920 Setup by Royal Proclamation

1921 Inaugurated; Deliberative, Consultative, Advisory;

iii. 1926 Butler Committee Report

To investigate nature of relationship b/w Paramount Power & Indian States; Recommends:

a. Paramountcy to remain paramount

b. States bound by treaties and can't be handed to Indian Government

c. Viceroy (not Governor-General-in-Council) to be Crown Agent

d. Intervention in state admin → Viceroy's discretion

iv. Praja Mandal & AISPC

To agitate for democratic institutions in advanced states

Mysore, Hyderabad, Baroda, Kathiavad, etc.

Different regional groups converted to All India State People's Conference

Self-government, responsible ministries, independent judiciary, social education etc.

Brutally crushed by respective Princes (at times with British help)

AISPC supported demand for Poorna Swaraj

i. Background

Failure of Non Cooperation → Vacuum

Yugantar, Anushilan Samiti resurface

Participation of women ↑

Santi Ghosh, Suniti Chowdury → DM; Bina Das → Governor

ii. North India

a. 1924 Hindustan Republic Association

- Kanpur, SACHIN SANYAL, JOGESH CHANDRA CHATTERJEE - Establish Federal Republic of United States of India by armed revolution - Political Dacoities - KAKORI Train - Bismil, Asfaqullah, Lahiri, Roshan Lal

b. 1828 Hindustan Socialist Republic Army - BHAGAT SINGH

- Establish Socialist Republican State - 1928 Assassination of Saunder (Azad, Rajguru) - 1929 Central Assembly Bombing (Bhagat Singh, Batukeswar)

iii. Bengal

Yugantar Group - Subhas Bose

Anushilan Group - JM Sengupta

Indian Republican Army - Surya Sen (Master Da)

- Lokenath Baul, Ganesh Ghosh, Anant Singh

- Chttagong Armoury Raid

i. 1927 Lucknow Session - 3 Resolutions

a. Boycott Simon Commission

b. Prepare Swaraj Constitution

c. Hindu-Muslim Unity

All Parties Conference → Committee headed by ML Nehru

ii. 1928 Calcutta Session - NEHRU REPORT

a. Dominion Status (Australia, Canada)

b. Fundamental Rights (conscience, profession, religion, unions)

c. Universal Adult Franchise

d. Lower Houses: Joint & Mixed Electorates

e. Reservation (for fixed period)

f. Central & Provincial Lists of Subjects

g. Sindh & Karnataka to be made provinces

i. Programs

a. Educational Institutions

b. Liquor, Opium, Foreign Goods

c. Foreign Cloth

d. Taxes

e. Mass Strikes & Demonstrations

f. Legal System

ii. Nature and Progress

Fall in cloth imports (26→13.7 million yards)

Imperial Tobacco, Dunlop ICI, liquor etc.

KHUDAI KHIDMATGARS (Frontier Gandhi) - Red Shirts

Emancipation of women

GD Birla donated 1-5 lacs

Capitalist support: Jamnalal Bajaj, Walchand Hirachand, Lalji Maranji, Thakurdas

iii. Government Reaction

Repression and Conciliation with full use of Divide and Rule

Demand securities from press, outlawing Congress, confiscate Congress property

Curb civil liberties, ban civil disobedience

Muslim appeasement to stop them from joining

Irwin Assurance: any solution to political problem to be taken with assent of important minorities

iv. Limitations

Missing Hindu-Muslim unity

Low Muslim participation

Decline in enthusiasm from urban merchants and dealers

Congress Boycott, still 89 delegates selected so as to give an impression of inclusion.

i. Moderate/Liberal Politicians

ii. Communal Representatives (Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Sikhs, SCs, Christians, etc.)

iii. Economic Interests - landlords & industrialists

iv. Non-Indian Stakeholders - Europeans, Anglo-Indians

v. Princely States' Representatives

vi. British delegates

1930 (Nov) PM Ramsay MacDonald presided and proposed

i. Federal government with full responsible provincial (*minorities)

ii. Dyarchy at center

British Government: Federation, Charges, Picket, Salt

i. FEDERATION: Accepted

ii. POLITICAL PRISONERS: Released

iii. UNCOLLECTED FINES: Remitted

iv. CONFISCATED LANDS: Return (if unsold)

v. PEACEFUL PICKETING: Allowed

vi. SALT MANUFACTURE: Allowed

Congress: Civil Disobedience, Boycott, RTC

i. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE: Suspend

ii. BOYCOTT PLANS: Withdraw

iii. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE: Associate

Reactions: Left, State, INC Worker

Execution of revolutionaries → Anger

Angered leftist leaders

Positive → Gandhi treated on basis of courtesy and equality.

Average Congress worker released from jail went home as victor.

Adopted by INC → Gandhi → Sole Congress representative for II-RTC

1931 - Second Round Table Conference

MM Malviya & Sarojini Naidu nominated by Viceroy

Separate Electorate demanded by other minorities as well

Minorities Pact → Separate Electorate → Opposed by Gandhi

Eventually minorities (specifically Muslims) appeased

Gandhi returned empty-handed

Ordinances

Emergency Powers Ordinance

Unlawful Instigation Ordinance

Prevention of Molestation & Boycotting Ordinance

Unlawful Association Ordinance

Wide, Rejuvenated Civil Disobedience

Picket → Cloth, Liquor

Boycott → Loyalist Businesses, State Symbols

Hold Illegal Congress session

Salt Satyagraha, Forest Law Violation

No-Rent & No-Revenue Campaigns

120,000 Arrests

About

1932 (Aug 10) Communal Award (before III-RTC)

Encouraged each unit (Muslim/SC/Sikh etc.) to consider themselves a Nation

No Community could come to power on its own strength

Hindu:105, Muslim:82, SC:19, Other Interests:44

Reactions

Rejected by Congress & Hindu community

Separate electorates → Untouchables to remain untouchable forever

Poona Pact

1932 (Sep 20) Gandhi starts fast (Ambedkar calls it political stunt)

Temples & wells thrown open to SCs

1932 (Sep 26) Poona Pact → Reservation (v/s Separate Electorates)

i. Features

Culmination of proposals from Simon Commission to RTCs (1,2,3)

321 sections and 10 schedules

Dominion Status: no comments

Sovereignty: British Parliament

Communal Electorate: retained, enlarged in scope

Franchise: extended (2.8%→11%) by lowered property qualifications

11 Provinces, 6 chief-commissioner's provinces, Princely (those who joined)

LISTS: Federal (59) Provincial (54) Concurrent (46)

ALL INDIA FEDERATION comprising BRITISH INDIAN provinces & INDIAN states

Dyarchy: Abolished at provinces, introduced in center

Reserved List: Defense, External Affairs, Ecclesiastical Affairs, Tribal Ares

ii. Appraisal

Federalism: Provision Killed by Princes

Dyarchy: Didn't work in center, can it work in Provinces

Franchise: Varied provincially but increased to 14%

Provincial Autonomy: Governor's Veto → Only in Name

Nehru: "Charter of Slavery"; "machine with strong brakes but no engine"

1937: Muslim League Lucknow Session → Jinnah: INC alienates Muslims, eg:

local ban on Baqrid, cow slaughter

Bande Mataram (with idolatry passages)

Encouragement of Hindi/Hindustani (Devnagri) over Urdu

1938 HARIPURA SESSION: Subhash Chandra elected unanimously

Assured MORAL support to struggle in Princely states

Disassociate from activities incompatible with basic principles (eg: peasant movements aimed at quick-fixes)

Declared "India could not be party to an imperialist war"

1939 TRIPIURI SESSION: Bose defeats P Sitarammaya (Gandhi's candidate)

Bose stiffened opposition of INC to any compromise with Britain

Bose: take advantage of British-German war

Nehru-Gandhi: opposed taking advantage of Britain's peril.

1938 (Sep) MUNICH PACT

Bose introduces National Planning Committee, Gandhi opposes (industrialization)

Rifts → Bose resigns, forms FORWARD BLOCK.

Three proposals

i. Expand Viceroy's Executive Council, increase Indian representation

ii. Establish War Advisory Council with representatives from Provinces & states

iii. Promote practical steps → post-war representative bodies → constitution

Response

i. INC opposed as they wanted immediate democratic responsible government

ii. League opposed, "not be satisfied with anything short of Pakistan"

Two parts

i. Procedure for framing dominion, constitution

ii. Interim arrangements during war period

Features

Recognized for first time right of dominion

Full right of Indians to frame their constitution and its principles

Accepted right of Indian Union to secede from Commonwealth

Calculated to please League and Princely States

Recognized right of Muslim majority provinces to frame their own constitution

Indians REJECTED

i. Dominion (not independence)

ii. Gandhi: "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank"

iii. Hindu MS: instrument of "Balkanization of India"

iv. Sikhs: NO to separation of Punjab from India

Muslim League: Initially accepted then rejected as:

i. No clear acceptance of Pakistan

ii. No provisions for Muslim-only constituent assembly

iii. No provisions for separate electorate for constituent assembly

iv. No dates for interim arrangements

v. Inadequate representation of Muslims in provincial assemblies

1942 - Quit India Resolutions

1942 (Jul 13) CWC, Wardha, Quit India Resolution

"British rule in India mus tend immediately"

Government considered demands ill-timed

1942 (Aug 08) AICC, Bombay; "Do or Die speech"

British Reaction and Outburst

1942 (Aug 09) day after resolution, all CWC members & Gandhi arrested

Outburst of spontaneous unorganized anger "August Revolution"

Three Phases

Initial: urban revolt; quickly suppressed; 3-4 days; repressive measures.

Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Patna, Ahmadabad

Second: countryside, militant students; Violent means, parallel governments.

Patna, Benares, Cuttack etc.

Third: revolutionary terrorist, sabotage war activities, dislocate communications

Centers: Bihar-Eastern UP, Midnapur, Orissa-Maharashtra, Karnataka

Leaders: Aruna Asaf Ali, RM Lohia, S Kripalani, Biju Patnaik, JP Narain

Response & Critical Appraisal

Hindu MS: repudiate INC, focus on League's demands for Pakistan

Jinnah: an attempt to force Muslims to submit to INC terms

While INC leaders in jail, League strengthens its position

Removed illusion that British empire was morally justified and supported by Indians

1943 Rajagopalachari Formula

i. League to endorse demand for Independence, form Provisional Interim Government during transition

ii. Post-war, demarcate Muslim-majority districts, plebiscite

iii. If separation, mutual agreement for common services (defense, communication, commerce)

iv. Voluntary transfer of population

Jinnah turns down as "offering mutilated and moth eaten Pakistan"

1944 (Sep 09-27) Gandhi-Jinnah Talks

i. Gandhi: Indian Muslims not a separate nation, but part of a family of many members

ii. Gandhi: separation only after complete freedom

iii. Gandhi: treaty of separation to administer common services

Wavell plan broadcast on radio

Ease political situation, advance India towards self-government

Setup new Executive Council - entirely Indian Except Viceroy & C-in-C

Equal representation for caste Hindus and Muslims in executive council

Executive council - provisional national government, under GoI Act 1935

Settlement of communal issue

External affairs → Indian member

Simla Conference

To discuss Wavell Plan with various parties and leaders

1945 (Jun 25) 21 invitees Hindu MS not invited, Gandhi not attended

1946 (Mar 24) Three British Cabinet ministers arrive Delhi

Sir Pethick Lawrence, Secretary of State for India

Sir Stafford Cripps, President of Board of Trade

AV Alexander, First Lord of Admiralty

Objective

Setup quickly machinery for drawing up Constitution

Make necessary arrangements for Interim Government

Offers Jinnah two alternatives

Accept Pakistan with areas limited to Muslim majority, or

Federation of autonomous provinces as part of union of India

1946 (May 16) Recommendations

Unity of India to be retained

Pakistan as demanded by League REJECTED

Union of India - British Provinces + Princely States

Residuary powers to Provinces

Princely States to retain all subjects other than those ceded to Union

Constituent Assembly - 294 members from Provinces, 93 from Princely States

3 Province categories

Group A: Madras, UP, Bihar, CP Orissa

Group B: Punjab, Sind, NWFP, Baluchistan (Muslim majority)

Group C: Bengal, Assam (small Muslim majority)

Congress

Accepts proposals wrt Constituent Assembly

Rejects Interim Government (disproportionate representation to League)

League

Accepts on June 6

Withdraws on July 29, calls for DIRECT ACTION

Constituent Assembly

Elections held in July 1946

210 general seats to provinces → 199 captured by INC

78 Muslim seats → 73 captured by League

House of 296, Congress had 212 → super-majority

League Rejects Plan

Thumping majority of INC; Government rejects Leagues sole right of nominating Muslims

Nehru: Assembly can change the Cabinet Plan (including state-groupings)

Jinnah accuses INC of forcing its schemes, WITHDRAWS

1946 (Aug 16) Direct Action Day

Muslim rowdies, rampage, indiscriminate killings, arson, rapes etc.

Great Calcutta Killings

League government in Bengal encouraged and took part in organizing attacks against Hindus

Communal madness spreads to other parts of North India (E-Bengal, Bihar)

Virtual civil war

1946 (Sep 02) Interim Government

First time since advent of British, Government of India in Indian hands

12 members (3 Muslims) nominated by Congress

League initially refused to join

Oct 13, 5 Congress members resign to make room for League's nominees

League wished to paralyze, wreck from within

LIAQAT ALI, Finance Portfolio → obstruction

1946 (Dec 06) Constituent Assembly

Elections to CA July-December

1946 (Dec 06) First session, Rajendra Prasad

League refused to join, demands Pakistan

British Government ruled CA decisions not binding on Muslim-majority areas

1947 (Feb 20) Attlee's Declaration

Announced in House of Commons, departure by June 1948

Appointment of Mountbatten as 34th and last British Governor-General & Viceroy

1947 (Mar 22) Mountbatten Arrives

1947 (Jun 03) June 3rd Plan

1947 Boundary Commission

Two commissions - 1+4 members each

Bengal Commission & Punjab Commission

Dispute in PB over Lahore, Multan, Jullundur, Ambala

Aug 13: Final award ready

India gets Bengal: 36% area 35% population; Punjab: 38% area, 45% population

1947 Partition Council

5 members - 2 (INC) + 2 (League) + Mountbatten (chairman)

INC: Patel, Rajendra Prasad (Rajagopalachari, alternate)

League: Jinnah, Liaqat (Nishtar, alternate)

Partition Council continued to function even after Aug 15

Steering Committee: HM Patel & Chaudhri Mhd. Ali

Arbitral Tribunal

Sir Syed Ahmend Khan

1884: Hindus & Muslims "two eyes of a beautiful bride, i.e. India"

1888: Hindus & Muslims "not only two nations, but as two warring nations"

Muslim Backwardness → India not fit for democracy (as Muslims would not get their share)

Causes for Growth of Communalism

Anglo-Indian administrators → quick to work on Muslim Apprehensions.

Aligarh Movement → instills loyalty towards Crown (stay away from politics)

British writers on Indian history → Hindu-Muslim approach

Religious reform & revival movements → Wahabis' Dar-ul-Islam v/s Dayanand's Aryanization & Shuddhi

Militant Nationalists → National Heroes - Rana Pratap, Sivaji, Guru Govind Singh

Separate Electorates

Muslim League (1906) → Hindu Mahasabha (1910)

Towards Demand of Separate State

First Decade for League → continuation of British rule

WW-I, Turkey, Lucknow Pact, Khilafat

1930 IQBAL Allahabad Session →first articulated demand for separate Muslim State

1933 RAHMAT ALI - Pakistan National Movement (to propagate ideas)

1934 Jinnah becomes undisputed leader

Suspension of Non-Cooperation → League becomes enemy of INC

WW-II: though sympathies to British, demanded recognition as sole representative of Muslims

August Offer → proclaim partition as only solution

Pakistan Resolution

1938 Jinnah blames Congress; scathing criticism.

Accuses Gandhi of trying to establish "Hindu Raj"

1939 (Dec 22) "Day of Deliverance"; Two-slogan propaganda

i. Congress Government were ruthless with the Muslims

ii. Muslims were not a minority but a nation in the sub-continent

1940 Lahore Session, Muslims must have a separate independent state

"Ahmad was the philosopher, Iqbal the prophet and Jinnah the statesman-creator"

Junagarh

Aug 15: Junagarh announces accession to Pakistan

Sep 13: Pakistan informs India, acceptance of Junagarh

Condemned by rulers and people of other states.

Thousands of Hindus ran away from Junagarh

Sep: India disperse around Junagarh troops of acceding States

Congress leaders establish provisional Government of Junagarh.

Junagarh troops enter State of Mangarol (already in India)

Government of India sends its troops for State of Mangarool

Oct 22 Junagarh taken over to prevent flare up in state

Oct Late Nawab of Junagarh runs away to Pakistan since no troops coming to help

Referendum → Junagarh merges in Indian Union.

Hyderabad

Nizam of Hyderabad wanted a diminion status.

Pressure from Indian Government → secret negotiations with Pakistan

KASIM RIZVI Hyderabad minister opposes merger with India

Kasim Rizvi organizes army of RAZAKARS (liberators of Muslims of India), inflame communal passions

Razakar attack Madras, Bombay, CP → Reign of terror, loss of life and property

Sep 13 1948 Indian forces commanded by Maj Gen Choudhuri enter Hyderabad

Sep 17 1948 Hyderabad army surrenders, Rizvi arrested, Razakar disbanded.

Kashmir

Hindu Raja (Hari Singh), Muslim subjects

Maharaja kept on wavering in taking a decision

Pakistan signs Stand Still Agreement BUT

Diplomatic, political, military pressures; flame communal fire; cut off supplies

Tribal raiders and forces dressed as tribal enter Kashmir

Oct 24 Maharaja appeals Government of India for help

Oct 26 Maharaja signs Instrument of Accession

Oct 27 Indian troops airlifted to Kashmir

Intervention of UN → CEASE FIRE on JANUARY 1, 1949.

1948 DAR COMMITTEE - LINGUISTIC PROVINCES COMMITTEE

Opposed creation of linguistic states

Report strongly opposed by supporters of linguistic states

Telugu speaking areas of Madras State → POTTI SRIRAMULU

Andhra was the first linguistic states

1948 JVP COMMISSION - LINGUISTIC PROVINCES COMMITTEE

Jawahar-Vallabhbhai-Pattabhi

To look into Linguistic States

Didn't support the Idea of Linguistic States

1953 STATES REORGANIZATION COMMISSION

Fazl Ali Pt. Hridaynath Kunzuru, KM Panikar

Submitted report on September 1955

Union to consist of 16 states (v/s 27 state & 3 UTs)

Special safeguards for linguistic minorities

Reconstitution of certain All India Services (50% IAS, 33% HC Judges from outside the state)

Encourage study of Indian languages other than Hindi

English to occupy important position for the time being

State Reorganization Act was passed in 1956

14 states, 6 UTs;

Demands not met: Bombay, Punjab; Jharkhand Nagaland.

New States

1954 Pondicherry → handed over by French

1960 Bombay → Maharashtra & Gujarat

1961 Goa → Freed from Portuguese (Dec 11)

1963 Nagaland (AZ PHIZO)

1966 Punjab → Punjab & Haryana

1971 Himachal Pradesh

1975 Sikkim (full statehood v/s protectorate)

1986 Mizoram → Full Statehood; 53 CAA

1987 Arunachal Pradesh → 55 CAA

1987 Goa → Full Statehood; 56 CAA

2000 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand

2014 Telangana